Silam
Explorer
I was thinking about how to optimize the action economy of a Wizard and how to, in particular, not let the Bonus Action go to waste. I came to realize the same thing many others concluded before, which is that 5e Wizards have a dearth of options for using their Bonus Action without also giving up their concentration. But, this exploration made me trip into a ditch that turned out to be a wonderful rabbit hole: the Tiny Servant spell.
Others have talked about it before, but I would like to explore it, and adjacent topics, in depth. This is what this thread is about. I’ll explore the limits of outsourcing with a “build” I’ll call the Economist Wizard, and discuss two techniques in that character’s bag of tricks: the Buff Chamber and the Tiny Buffers. Note that while we might call this a build, it only requires Wizard spells, gold and time, but not any subclass, feats or anything else. This should make it broadly applicable. So without further ado, let’s get into it!
Tiny Servant in a Nutshell
Tiny Servant is a 3rd level spell from the 2014 XGtE book which takes 1m to cast, lasts 8h, and transforms some object into a tiny construct, by sprouting arms and legs. Upcasting grants 2 extra servants per slot level. Henceforth, the caster can take a Bonus Action to command one or all servants to do something. They can also be told to keep working on a task until completed, so you could get several rounds of work from a single Bonus Action.
None of this seemed extraordinary to me until I read somewhere that those creatures could use a Wand of Magic Missile, since it doesn’t require attunement (which I don’t believe actually matters, but more on that later). So it got me thinking…
How Many Servants Could We Get?
Upcasted, a 9th level slot yields 13 servants. Assuming my math is right, a 20th level Wizard spending all of their 3rd to 9th level slots on this endeavor could get 83 servants, and 10 more with Arcane Recovery, for a total of 93.
Well, that seems fantastic. 93 castings of MM for the cost of one Bonus Action is some serious late stage globalized supply chain action economy.
But are there any other options to get even more?
Which Other Labor Markets Could We Outsource To?
If a tiny servant can take the Use a Magic Item Action, why not do something even simpler, and have our familiar do it too? The benefits of a familiar are that it lasts indefinitely, not just 8h, and that it can be commanded to do something without even using any action at all. So that would bring us to 94 wand holders.
Another 1st level spell, Unseen Servant, might be able to achieve the same purpose as well, however by RAW this one seems to indicate that a Bonus Action is required to command a single servant (even though nothing seems to prevent having many active at once). Like the other methods above, it is also concentration-free, and can be instructed to keep doing the task until completion (e.g., “keep using this Wand of MM against the BBEG until you have spent 6 out of 7 charges”), so you could conceivably layer one more servant per round until they’re all firing simultaneously. Because of the tediousness of the staggered start, we’ll ignore the US in the total, but if you really wanted to, you could cast 7 of them with 1st and 2nd level slots and eventually (after the staggered warmup) break into the realm of triple digits number of servants.
These two 1st level spells might serve for a scaled down version of this Economist Wizard build which is shaping up right before our eyes, since we could get access to them from the very beginning. Given that both spells are rituals, you can technically have 2 wand holders without any slot cost, and have them both do stuff at the cost of a Bonus Action. Not bad for low levels.
For the sake of exhaustivity, let’s consider other ways, besides magical servants and familiars, to achieve the same outcome of outsourcing actions to third parties. I’m tucking it into a spoiler because you could totally skip this.
Which Other Items Can the Subcontractors Use?
Why limit ourselves to Wands of MM? I’ve seen arguments that the Wand of MM works because it doesn’t require attunement. But does attunement matter? It matters to unseen servants and summons which last just 1h, but tiny servants last 8h, which is plenty of time to attune… and it seems to be broadly accepted that familiars can attune, since they are creatures (which tiny servants also are). They could not attune to items that have special requirements (such as being a spellcaster) but plenty of items don’t.
Somewhat weirdly, the PHB offers clear rules for the cost of scribing scrolls of any level, but the DMG does not offer equivalent rules for crafting wands of any level. Rather, we have just a smattering of specific wands, such as the Wand of MM (uncommon rarity, no attunement, 1st level spell) and those of Fireball and Lightning Bolt (rare, attunement for a spellcaster, 3rd level spells). If the DM allows crafting wands of any 1st level spells with the same cost and characteristics as the Wand of MM, then that is a perfect vehicle for those spells, and should be chosen, since they are cheap to craft, self-charge, and require no attunement.
For higher level spells, the remaining options are rings of spell storing (which require spending slots to recharge) and enspelled items. Both of these require attunement. Cost-wise, enspelled items of 1st level are uncommon, and therefore cheaper than rings of spell storing, and have the benefit of self-charging. For spells of 2nd and 3rd level, enspelled items are rare (same as the rings) but the self-charging can still make them competitive choices (at the cost of giving up flexibility, since the rings can hold any spell). At 4th and 5th level, enspelled items become very rare, so the self-charging comes at quite a high cost. Finally, at levels 6th to 8th, they are legendary, so immensely more costly, though they also go beyond what the rings can do, since the rings are capped at 5 spell levels. Finally, enspelled weapons do not support all schools of magic, and the other kinds of enspelled items might be too big for tiny servants to carry, so in some cases, rings might be the only option.
94 castings of MM is impressive, but how about 94 castings of Fireball from 94 rings of spell storing or enspelled daggers? Even the most dextrous Rogue with Evasion will roll a few natural 1s. But why even limit ourselves to just one spell? There are plenty of tiny servants available to impose any number of attack rolls and saves of each kind, every damage type and every debuff under the sun and in the underdark.
And besides offense, why not use this for buffing?
Taking Buff Stacking to its Logical Conclusion
Perhaps an army of tiny servants, each with their own ring of spell storing or enspelled dagger, can provide a cheaper alternative to the Buff Chamber (i.e., a Demiplane filled with Glyphs of Warding), by outsourcing casting and concentration not to spell glyphs, but to tiny servants. Let’s call this alternative the Tiny Buffers strategy, and see how it compares to the Buff Chamber.
The goal, in both cases, is to have third parties taking care of the casting and concentration, so that you need not spend slots nor casting times on setting up your buff routine. Both strategies also help with buffs that do not require concentration (even though those could be stacked without the help of a third-party), because they allow using yesterday’s slots today (similar to the economics of a scroll or potion, but with a possibly more favorable cost structure, more on that below), and can be triggered all at once. The main limitation of using a third party (whether a glyph or servant) to cast the buff, is that it needs to work on a target other than “self” (see the Buff Compendium below for qualifying spells).
Beyond the shared characteristics mentioned above, there are also differences, leading to the following tradeoffs for each strategy:
Below are some potentially interesting Wizard spells of 8th level or lower, which have a range other than self.
So that’s a total of maybe ~35 castings depending how you count it (excluding 6th level and higher spells, but with multiple castings of EA and PfE to cover all possibilities, etc.).
But, this assumes you want to selfishly buff only yourself, whereas this strategy technically works on any number of allies, given enough servants. If table politics come into play, you may be better off having a handful of servants cast Haste on the entire party, rather than cast multiple buffs on yourself. One way to set this up would be to distribute the servants ahead of time to each party member, and then command all of them to cast their ring’s spell on the person they are currently standing on. This not only solves the command formulation aspect, but is anyway necessary for touch range buffs. Note that you could personalize which buff each party member gets.
Operational Efficiencies
While 35 is well below the theoretical limit of 94 ring holders, it remains a not insignificant investment of slots to bring up this many servants, assuming the Economist Wizard also wants slots left for other activities than buffing. If pursuing the strategy of buffing the entire party, then you could easily run out of servants regardless.
Ways to mitigate this cost could include:
In conclusion…
The Economist Wizard uses their knowledge of labor markets, amortized costs, deferring the value of spell slots into the future and other concepts from the business domain to scale up the amount of spells triggered by a single action or bonus action. It requires only spells, gold and time, so it can be folded into any Wizard builds, including a scaled down version from level 1. Artificers also have the Tiny Servant spell. Even a pesky Bard with their pilfered secrets could pull some of it off…
What am I missing? Are there other ways for a Wizard to outsource actions, concentration, attunement, or any other activity of interest?
What else can be done with tiny servants or familiars? Which other items would you make them carry or attune with? What other spells should they cast? What clever command formulations should be used?
In terms of build, what would help the Economist Wizard?
And finally, the killer question: are there any issues with any of the above by the RAW? And how would you deal with it at your table, in terms of RAI / DM’s ruling?
Appendix
Others have talked about it before, but I would like to explore it, and adjacent topics, in depth. This is what this thread is about. I’ll explore the limits of outsourcing with a “build” I’ll call the Economist Wizard, and discuss two techniques in that character’s bag of tricks: the Buff Chamber and the Tiny Buffers. Note that while we might call this a build, it only requires Wizard spells, gold and time, but not any subclass, feats or anything else. This should make it broadly applicable. So without further ado, let’s get into it!
Tiny Servant in a Nutshell
Tiny Servant is a 3rd level spell from the 2014 XGtE book which takes 1m to cast, lasts 8h, and transforms some object into a tiny construct, by sprouting arms and legs. Upcasting grants 2 extra servants per slot level. Henceforth, the caster can take a Bonus Action to command one or all servants to do something. They can also be told to keep working on a task until completed, so you could get several rounds of work from a single Bonus Action.
None of this seemed extraordinary to me until I read somewhere that those creatures could use a Wand of Magic Missile, since it doesn’t require attunement (which I don’t believe actually matters, but more on that later). So it got me thinking…
How Many Servants Could We Get?
Upcasted, a 9th level slot yields 13 servants. Assuming my math is right, a 20th level Wizard spending all of their 3rd to 9th level slots on this endeavor could get 83 servants, and 10 more with Arcane Recovery, for a total of 93.
Well, that seems fantastic. 93 castings of MM for the cost of one Bonus Action is some serious late stage globalized supply chain action economy.
But are there any other options to get even more?
Which Other Labor Markets Could We Outsource To?
If a tiny servant can take the Use a Magic Item Action, why not do something even simpler, and have our familiar do it too? The benefits of a familiar are that it lasts indefinitely, not just 8h, and that it can be commanded to do something without even using any action at all. So that would bring us to 94 wand holders.
Another 1st level spell, Unseen Servant, might be able to achieve the same purpose as well, however by RAW this one seems to indicate that a Bonus Action is required to command a single servant (even though nothing seems to prevent having many active at once). Like the other methods above, it is also concentration-free, and can be instructed to keep doing the task until completion (e.g., “keep using this Wand of MM against the BBEG until you have spent 6 out of 7 charges”), so you could conceivably layer one more servant per round until they’re all firing simultaneously. Because of the tediousness of the staggered start, we’ll ignore the US in the total, but if you really wanted to, you could cast 7 of them with 1st and 2nd level slots and eventually (after the staggered warmup) break into the realm of triple digits number of servants.
These two 1st level spells might serve for a scaled down version of this Economist Wizard build which is shaping up right before our eyes, since we could get access to them from the very beginning. Given that both spells are rituals, you can technically have 2 wand holders without any slot cost, and have them both do stuff at the cost of a Bonus Action. Not bad for low levels.
For the sake of exhaustivity, let’s consider other ways, besides magical servants and familiars, to achieve the same outcome of outsourcing actions to third parties. I’m tucking it into a spoiler because you could totally skip this.
- Animate Dead scales even better than Tiny Servant when upcasted, though some folks online say that these undeads couldn’t use magic items due to being mindless, or that they couldn’t attune to them. Whether undeads and/or constructs can do it probably ends up being a table-dependent DM ruling in any case, but if both are allowed, then it’s good to have options! Do you prefer the vibe of a necromancer with an army of spell-slinging walking dead? Or a Beauty and the Beast vibe with anthropomorphized teapots and candles? Or maybe a more steampunk vibe where the servants’ legs and arms are mechanical in appearance, as the image in XGtE depicts?
- Summons, of course, could also play a role, though they are typically not going to be around for more than 1h, which makes attunement a problem. There could be ways around that, such as using metamagic to extend the duration. More importantly, summoning requires concentration, so it’s dead in the water, unless we’re cooking up a multi-level marketing scheme where the tiny servants summon other creatures (more on that later)…
- Hirelings are a non-magical way to do it. Just pay people and let them do the work, the old-fashioned way! It can certainly be tempting to scale this operation indefinitely (as much as gold and food allows). There may be risks involved in doling out magic items to free-willed individuals that could keep it for themselves and run away, though modeling the expenses of employee theft is left as an exercise to the reader.
- Any others I’m missing?
Which Other Items Can the Subcontractors Use?
Why limit ourselves to Wands of MM? I’ve seen arguments that the Wand of MM works because it doesn’t require attunement. But does attunement matter? It matters to unseen servants and summons which last just 1h, but tiny servants last 8h, which is plenty of time to attune… and it seems to be broadly accepted that familiars can attune, since they are creatures (which tiny servants also are). They could not attune to items that have special requirements (such as being a spellcaster) but plenty of items don’t.
Somewhat weirdly, the PHB offers clear rules for the cost of scribing scrolls of any level, but the DMG does not offer equivalent rules for crafting wands of any level. Rather, we have just a smattering of specific wands, such as the Wand of MM (uncommon rarity, no attunement, 1st level spell) and those of Fireball and Lightning Bolt (rare, attunement for a spellcaster, 3rd level spells). If the DM allows crafting wands of any 1st level spells with the same cost and characteristics as the Wand of MM, then that is a perfect vehicle for those spells, and should be chosen, since they are cheap to craft, self-charge, and require no attunement.
For higher level spells, the remaining options are rings of spell storing (which require spending slots to recharge) and enspelled items. Both of these require attunement. Cost-wise, enspelled items of 1st level are uncommon, and therefore cheaper than rings of spell storing, and have the benefit of self-charging. For spells of 2nd and 3rd level, enspelled items are rare (same as the rings) but the self-charging can still make them competitive choices (at the cost of giving up flexibility, since the rings can hold any spell). At 4th and 5th level, enspelled items become very rare, so the self-charging comes at quite a high cost. Finally, at levels 6th to 8th, they are legendary, so immensely more costly, though they also go beyond what the rings can do, since the rings are capped at 5 spell levels. Finally, enspelled weapons do not support all schools of magic, and the other kinds of enspelled items might be too big for tiny servants to carry, so in some cases, rings might be the only option.
94 castings of MM is impressive, but how about 94 castings of Fireball from 94 rings of spell storing or enspelled daggers? Even the most dextrous Rogue with Evasion will roll a few natural 1s. But why even limit ourselves to just one spell? There are plenty of tiny servants available to impose any number of attack rolls and saves of each kind, every damage type and every debuff under the sun and in the underdark.
And besides offense, why not use this for buffing?
Taking Buff Stacking to its Logical Conclusion
Perhaps an army of tiny servants, each with their own ring of spell storing or enspelled dagger, can provide a cheaper alternative to the Buff Chamber (i.e., a Demiplane filled with Glyphs of Warding), by outsourcing casting and concentration not to spell glyphs, but to tiny servants. Let’s call this alternative the Tiny Buffers strategy, and see how it compares to the Buff Chamber.
The goal, in both cases, is to have third parties taking care of the casting and concentration, so that you need not spend slots nor casting times on setting up your buff routine. Both strategies also help with buffs that do not require concentration (even though those could be stacked without the help of a third-party), because they allow using yesterday’s slots today (similar to the economics of a scroll or potion, but with a possibly more favorable cost structure, more on that below), and can be triggered all at once. The main limitation of using a third party (whether a glyph or servant) to cast the buff, is that it needs to work on a target other than “self” (see the Buff Compendium below for qualifying spells).
Beyond the shared characteristics mentioned above, there are also differences, leading to the following tradeoffs for each strategy:
- Combat Use: The pros for the Buff Chamber strategy is that the Demiplane and its various GoW can be fully setup ahead of time, which means you are not spending a bunch of slots in the previous 8h to summon your servants, but the con is when you do want to use it, you need to spend an action and cast Demiplane (8th level). The pros for the Tiny Buffers strategy is that you can trigger your buffs as a Bonus Action, and you can use the strategy way before having an 8th level slot, but the con is that you need to have spent slots earlier the same day to pre-create the tiny servants (unless you have the ability to do a metamagic extension of Tiny Servants, and have them ready the night before…).
- Setup Cost: Understanding the cost structure of each strategy requires the Economist Wizard to take infrastructural investment and amortization into account: the preparation of the Buff Chamber costs 200 GP of powdered diamond per single-use Glyph of Warding, and two slots (one for the buff spell, and the other for the GoW, which needs to be of equal level to the buff, but minimum 3rd level). The Tiny Buffers, on the other hand, requires an initial investment of one ring of spell storing per buff, which is 2K GP to craft, but it amortizes better over time as it can be reused freely thereafter (meaning, requiring no further GP expenditure, unless the buff itself has costly material components) and the slot cost is that of casting only the buff. At 2K versus 200, it means you break even with the rings after triggering your buff routine 10 times, and start saving GP from the 11th time onward. It’s even better if you can get the spell you want on a wand of uncommon rarity, since that would cost only 200 GP to craft, and recharge on its own at dawn (the only minor downside is that the spell choice is fixed at creation-time, rather than flexible as with the ring), thus breaking even at the very first use.
- Setup Time: The Buff Chamber requires 1h per Glyph of Warding, but it then lasts indefinitely (until triggered). The Tiny Buffers strategy costs half the slots and no extra time to recharge the rings of spell storing, but you do need to wait 1h for the servants to attune to their rings (which they can do in parallel). Recharging the rings can be done ahead of time, but the servants need to be created and to attune on the same day, which means they will have 7h left to potentially serve their caster. While waiting for attunement, the caster might want to use Arcane Recovery, so even though the morning routine is a bit lengthy, it’s not all for naught. Crafting each ring takes 50 days, while uncommon items such as the Wand of MM take 10 days, so you would do well to have helpers if you plan on having lots of them, or else consider buying them at market rate.
- Spell Compatibility: The Glyphs of Warding can technically be upcast to 9th level and in this way could support triggering 9th level spells, but since 20th level Wizards cannot have more than a single 9th level slot, then effectively the maximum spell level in the spell glyph is 8 (the 9th level slot is used to cast GoW, while the 8th level slot would be used for the spell to be triggered). The 2014 Boon of High Magic could circumvent this limitation by granting an extra 9th slot. Rings of spell storing, on the other hand, can only contain up to 5th level spells. For higher level spells, the rings could be substituted for enspelled items, which support up to 8th level spells, though those are legendary $$ and some of them have limitations on the schools of magic they support.
- Vulnerability: The Buff Chamber can technically be broken into by adversary mages, if they know enough details about it, though that scenario can be mitigated by having offensive glyphs guarding the Demiplane, in addition to buffing glyphs. Furthermore, the glyphs can have elaborate trigger conditions including target inclusion or exclusion, and passwords. The servants, on the other hand, will be closer to the heat of battle and so they could be destroyed or have their concentration broken, though technically they need not necessarily be out and about (they could hang on the Wizard’s shoulders, next to the familiar). Also, the tiny servants are thankfully immune to quite a few conditions, including charmed, frightened and paralyzed. The rings of spell storing could be destroyed or stolen, but then again, the whole party’s gear could likewise suffer the same fate, so it’s not any more vulnerable than any other gear (though perhaps more tempting to steal, given the fact that you’re carrying enough jewelry to make the Bling King jealous).
- The most important buff of up to 5th level that the Wizard wants to have ready to cast at all times should be put in a ring of spell storing or enspelled weapon and given to the familiar. This way, the familiar remains attuned, and is available even when the servants are missing.
- All other buffs of up to 5th level could be put in additional rings of spell storing and doled out each day to tiny servants for them to attune with.
- Buffs of 6th level or higher can be put in Glyphs of Warding in the Buff Chamber, and reserved as a break-glass procedure only for the most dire of circumstances. Of course, nothing prevents the Wizard from also setting up all of the other lower-level buffs there as well, to mitigate the scenario where the tiny servants get destroyed or aren’t ready yet, or the rings are out of charge. The glyphs could be designed with two different passwords, one for the lower level spells, and the other to trigger only the 6th+ level spells. Another option is to use enspelled weapons for the high level spells. In practice though, there are vanishingly few high level spells eligible for this (see the Buff Compendium below).
- And finally, the Wizard’s own concentration is allocated to whichever buff with a target of self is deemed most important. The Wizard’s own concentration thus remains highly-contended, but at least the list of candidate spells is whittled down a bit.
Below are some potentially interesting Wizard spells of 8th level or lower, which have a range other than self.
Touch, requiring concentration:
- 2nd Dragon's Breath (not a buff, but an old favorite of the familiar-booster crowd)
- 2nd Enhance Ability (needs 5 castings to get all available abilities, though it remains an open research problem how to formulate the command properly so that 5 tiny servants simultaneously use 5 distinct rings of spell storing to each boost a different ability)
- 3rd Fly
- 3rd Gaseous Form
- 4th Greater Invisibility
- 2nd Invisibility (not needed if you have access to the greater version, though the duration is longer…)
- 3rd Protection from Energy (needs 5 castings to get all available resistances, and suffers from the same command formulation issue as EA)
- 1st Protection from Evil
- 2nd Spider Climb
- 4th Stoneskin
- 5th Skill Empowerment (needs 1 casting per skill you are already proficient in, and again, same issue as EA and PfE)
- 2nd Darkvision
- 2nd Death Armor
- 1st Jump
- 1st Longstrider
- 1st Mage Armor
- 2nd Magic Weapon
- 8th Mind Blank
- 3rd Nondetection
- 2nd Nystul's Magic Aura
- 7th Simulacrum
- 7th Simbul's Synostodweomer
- 3rd Tiny Servant
- 3rd Tongues
- 6th True Seeing
- 2nd Enlarge/Reduce (needs 2 castings to get back to your original size
…) - 3rd Haste (let’s face it, isn’t this the reason we’re all here?)
- 3rd Intellect Fortress
- 3rd Catnap (not a buff, but still interesting to have available at lower slot cost)
- 3rd Water Breathing
So that’s a total of maybe ~35 castings depending how you count it (excluding 6th level and higher spells, but with multiple castings of EA and PfE to cover all possibilities, etc.).
But, this assumes you want to selfishly buff only yourself, whereas this strategy technically works on any number of allies, given enough servants. If table politics come into play, you may be better off having a handful of servants cast Haste on the entire party, rather than cast multiple buffs on yourself. One way to set this up would be to distribute the servants ahead of time to each party member, and then command all of them to cast their ring’s spell on the person they are currently standing on. This not only solves the command formulation aspect, but is anyway necessary for touch range buffs. Note that you could personalize which buff each party member gets.
Operational Efficiencies
While 35 is well below the theoretical limit of 94 ring holders, it remains a not insignificant investment of slots to bring up this many servants, assuming the Economist Wizard also wants slots left for other activities than buffing. If pursuing the strategy of buffing the entire party, then you could easily run out of servants regardless.
Ways to mitigate this cost could include:
- Simply being reasonable and having fewer spells in your buff routine.
- Accepting that the buffing routine will be done over multiple rounds, and thus each servant will do multiple spells. The cleanest way to do this would be to let each servant attune to 2 or 3 rings, and then you could give a single command such as “all servants activate the blue ring while targeting me” and the next round the red ring and so on (this can also be a good way to have the servants carry both defensive and offensive spells, in rings of different colors), but the downside is that the morning routine would then take even longer, since the servants would need to attune to each ring one after the other, each day. A less clean way would be to load multiple spells into each ring, though then it becomes tricky to issue one and only command to all of the servants (which is the same challenge for specifying which ability to target with EA, or which energy with PfE).
- Summon a single tiny servant, and give them a ring of spell storing charged with a 5th level Tiny Servant spell (yielding 5 tiny servants). Give those secondary tiny servants the rings with the useful spells. But then it becomes unclear what the end-to-end latency of the triggering becomes. When the Economist Wizard uses their Bonus Action to command the “lead tiny servant” to command the other “follower tiny servants” to activate their rings, does that all happen instantly? It also introduces additional risk, where losing the lead servant could leave all of the others leaderless. Quite finicky.
In conclusion…
The Economist Wizard uses their knowledge of labor markets, amortized costs, deferring the value of spell slots into the future and other concepts from the business domain to scale up the amount of spells triggered by a single action or bonus action. It requires only spells, gold and time, so it can be folded into any Wizard builds, including a scaled down version from level 1. Artificers also have the Tiny Servant spell. Even a pesky Bard with their pilfered secrets could pull some of it off…
What am I missing? Are there other ways for a Wizard to outsource actions, concentration, attunement, or any other activity of interest?
What else can be done with tiny servants or familiars? Which other items would you make them carry or attune with? What other spells should they cast? What clever command formulations should be used?
In terms of build, what would help the Economist Wizard?
And finally, the killer question: are there any issues with any of the above by the RAW? And how would you deal with it at your table, in terms of RAI / DM’s ruling?
Appendix
- Move over Fireball and Spirit Guardians, there is a new best 3rd level spell sheriff in town!: An earlier thread by Ancalagon with lots of good ideas about command formulation.
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